Depth of Knowledge Suggestions For A High School Drawing Class

       Art teachers face unique challenges in the practical application of DOKs. They must apply these ''depth of knowledge'' concepts by visual means of interpretation, as apposed to, liberal arts educators who primarily analyze their students' verbal and written responses with the application of the concept. I have included here a listing of DOKs I wrote and shared with my CT and her students during the drawing classes of my student teaching in a local high school.

Level One is all about Recall:

1. Draw a color wheel chart in today's brief journal entry.
2. Define five characteristics of texture through single abstract drawing.
3. Calculate the correct proportions of objects in relationship to each other in the still life I assign to you.
4. Arrange three objects in a drawing to demonstrate asymmetrical balance.
5. Repeat five patterns your observe in nature in your drawing.
6. Recall from an artist studied previously the typical elements of their work and then draw these in your own artwork.
7. Recite a series of events in a cartoon drawing.
8. Tell the class the kinds of things you have drawn before and why you did or did not enjoy drawing these things.
9. State the differences between the drawings of two artists you remember studying.
10. Recognize in a slide presentation a soft pastel drawing, a charcoal drawing, a pencil drawing and a oil pastel drawing.
11.  Use three different strokes of charcoal, vine, and conte crayon to illustrate a human figure.
12. Match the colors of a photograph in your own drawing.
13. List at least five quotes about drawing by noted individuals that you agree with and be prepared to discuss your opinions with the class.
14. Write a 150-word report about the drawings of a famous artist.
15. Name three important artists that you do not appreciate and then list for each one, at least three reasons you do not like their work.
16. Measure the exact size of your hand and draw it realistically according to those measurements
17. Illustrate a two-point perspective of a building.
18. Label five different art movements from a collection of images presented to you during a slide show.
19. List the principles of design.
20. Identify the differences between negative and positive space in a classroom discussion.
21.  Memorize the objects in a photograph and then redraw these in your own artwork without viewing the photo a second time.
22. Whose drawings do you admire the most and why?
23. What are ten purposes of drawing?
24. When do you think it is important for a person to learn to draw?
25.  Where are you most comfortable drawing and why?
    

Level Two is all about Skill and Concept:

1. Graph a photocopy and then draw a new artwork by using the graphed photo as a guide.
2. Classify shapes, patterns and colors within a randomly selected magazine page and reconstruct these to illustrate a new abstract artwork.
3. Separate the darkest areas from a greyscale drawing and then redraw these dark areas in order to develop a whole new abstract design.
4. Draw the cause of an assignment by randomly making marks on your paper while blindfolded. Then illustrate the effects of these marks by superimposing another series of marks next to the original ones without using an eraser or by covering up the random marks.
5. Estimate the colors that you should layer together in order to match the color representation of human flesh inside of a photograph.
6. Compare two art movements by dividing your paper in half and illustrating on the left half of the paper one kind of modernist technique and then on the right side of the paper illustrate the other side of the face by the techniques of another art movement.
7. Relate to a famous artist of your choice by drawing yourself into one of their artworks, keeping within their style and philosophy.
8. Infer lighting by drawing a figure in pale colored pencils on dark black drawing paper.
9. Categorize several techniques found in modern movements by drawing the same subject seen from three different points of view.
10. Collect and Display a series of drawings depicting found objects of interest to you.
11. Identify Patterns while drawing an abstract artwork of insects.
12. Organize a landscape drawing by including the following items: grove of trees, one lone pine, one stream, a large bird, and a mountain range.
13. Construct a robotic figure by drawing and shading a series of 3-D geometric shapes.
14. Modify the age of a drawn face by erasing wrinkles and redrawing the muscular structure.
15. Predict the left side of a face by drawing it based upon the photograph of the right side of a face only.
16. Interpret the depth of a dimly lit still life by the illustration of tone.
17. Distinguish the scale of trees in a landscape by drawing them distant, not so far away, and up close.
18. Use context cues to determine the origin of a small fragment of a much larger illustration.
19. Draw from an environment you observe.
20. Summarize only the most important information from a still life by drawing basic forms and using a limited number of colors.
21. Show a dreamscape through symbolic drawing.
    

Level Three is all about Strategic Thinking:

1. Revise an old black and white drawing by shifting objects, altering values, and applying color.
2. Apprise or inform a drawing by superimposing complimentary colors and new additional collage items to its’ surface.
3. Critique the value of a drawing by presuming the identity of someone from an entirely different culture.
4. Formulate the patterns of a photographed Baroque painting after turning it upside down and redrawing its’ elements.
5. Hypothesize the meaning behind the creation of one artwork by drawing it's explanation for a large group discussion.
6. Cite evidence for the journal topic I will give you in advance and draw a scientifically correct rendering of that evidence.
7. Draw conclusions about a torn photograph I will give you and finish it as a drawing within the confines of a 8'' x 12'' piece of drawing paper.
8. Draw and explain a famous phenomena in terms of one of the following concepts in modern art: surrealism, impressionism, cubism, or expressionism.
9. Use Concepts to Solve Non-Routine Problems
10. Develop a logical argument by drawing a still life you feel demonstrates the essence of that argument.
11. Assess those drawing skills you have learned thus far and illustrate them in a still life.
12. Construct a drawing of a crowd of people in a cafe space with figures that do not appear in the original photograph you are drawing from.
13. Compare the differences between one of your own drawings and one of a master artist. Then draw a hybrid artwork combining selected areas of both drawings into an entirely new drawing.
14. Investigate an art movement you are unfamiliar with and then draw a artwork representing the information you have gleaned from your research.
15. Differentiate between positive and negative space in order to draw an abstract landscape.
    

Level Four is all about Extended Thinking:

1. Design an original series of drawings depicting different lines of the same poem.
2. Connect symbolic images of one culture of your own choice to the logical representation of a myth, story, or music selection of a differing culture.
3. Synthesize or orchestrate a series of design elements in a drawing while listening to one particular song.
4. Apply concepts by painting three distinctly different landscapes influenced by three distinctly different art movements.
5. Critique a series of artworks that you dislike and redraw these by the means and methods you prefer.
6. Analyze the properties of an abstract artwork and apply these same properties to a representational drawing of a entirely different subject.
7. Create a drawing based upon an ancient myth, portraying the characters in modern costume, space, and times.
8. Prove your skills either by drawing much larger than you normally do or by drawing much smaller than you normally do.
   

article copyrighted 2011 by Grimm

Developmental Grids According to Piaget and Erikson

Stage of Cognitive Development According to Piaget

	The Formal Operational Stage (ages 11 to 15 yrs.)	The Concrete Operational Stage (ages 7 to 11 yrs.)
Age and characteristics of this stage	·      Think in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways ·      Verbal problem solving is possible. ·      Students speculate about the ideal qualities they desire in themselves and others ·      Students can devise plans to solve problems. ·      Develop hypothesis and reach systematic conclusions. ·      Adolescent egocentrism involves 2 basic ideas. One being that they believe others are as interested in them as much as they are in themselves. The second being that the adolescent desires to be publically noticed	·      Children can reverse concrete operations as well ·      Children can also classify or divide things into different sets or subsets ·      Literal classification skills only ·      Children can do mentally what they previously could only do physically ·      Transitivity, means reason about and logically combined relationships ·      Seriation, a concrete operation that involves ordering stimuli along some quantitative dimension
Teaching suggestions appropriate to this age/stage of development	·      Group problem solving ·      Exploring Individuality ·      Act out dramas ·      Verbalize and depict idealistic points of view	·      Use visual aids to explain relationships ·      Encourage thought processes ·      Make more complex classifications ·      Describe the reverse of information ·      Logical reasoning replaces intuition

Psychosocial Stages According to Erikson

	Adolescence Stage (ages 10 to 20 yrs. of age)	Early adulthood Stage (ages 20 to 30 yrs. of age)
Age and characteristics of this stage	·      Identity versus identity confusion ·      Who am I? ·      What do I want in life? ·      Where am I going in life? ·      Exploration into sexual identity ·      Exploration into vocational possibilities ·      Identity moratorium, identity status in which individuals have made a commitment but have not explored meaningful alternatives yet ·      Self-Esteem, the adolescent’s overall conception of himself is seriously challenged others and himself	·      Intimacy versus isolation ·      How can I form positive relationships with others? ·      How can I form close lasting relationships with others? ·      Dangers in feeling socially isolated ·      Care Perspective, a moral perspective that focuses on connectedness and relationships among people ·      Values clarification, moral education that emphasizes helping people clarify what their lives are for and what is worth working for, define your values and the values of others
Teaching suggestions appropriate to this age/stage of development	·      Observing a wide variety of life styles ·      Learning about diversity ·      Participating in debates ·      Learn to develop independent thinking ·      Experiment with different vocations ·      Social environments should be pursued openly. (Students begin to attend dances and date) ·      Encourage individuality, discourage intolerance of differences ·      Teachers should verbally engage with a diverse student body to demonstrate the acceptance and appreciation of diversity. ·      Teachers should introduce materials that encourage and engage students in diverse cultural accomplishments	·      Assign to these students study groups to encourage relationships with peers ·      Assignments that require a development of social interaction with others helps those students who are prone to isolation and introverted activities. Example, field observations in their community! ·      Positive reinforcement of group problem solving helps maintain lasting friendships ·      Encourage and reward community involvement with charities to aid students in developing intimate meaningful relationships. ·      Encourage young adults to join clubs of any kind in order to provide environments for them to mingle

Knowledge of Subject Matter

("Riverbed" by Donna Grimm, soft pastels)

"The object of our discussion is not that my words may triumph over yours, not that yours may gain the victory over mine, but that between us we may discover the most perfect truth." Socrates

      It is important for me to understand and implement core concepts demonstrated through the fine arts, objectively demonstrate to my students tools of inquiry, and to also interpret effective structures of discipline(s) utilized by many professional artists within the context of a academic global society. I must generate learning experiences that are both meaningful and thought provoking for art students assigned to my care.

      Many people believe fine art instructors primarily focus upon the teaching of principles and elements of design. These elements are interwoven into the subject of fine art, to be sure, but so are culture , philosophy,  and experience. Art students use all of these ideas to inform their decisions when creating an artwork in my classroom. The young people that I teach will learn to make educated choices and maintain quality processes. Although I do not believe in dictating all of their ideas, I do anticipate the importance of directing their energy in both productive and educational activities. This influence will improve the choices they make in future art assignments and general educational studies.

      I believe a professional teacher accumulates and maintains a wide variety of literary resources that will inform the lesson plans that he or she creates. I want my lesson plans to educate, inspire and appeal to young people. However, these lessons should also fulfill the expectations of the administration that employs me. I have included in my livetext portfolio a Stand Alone Bibliography for those administrators, teachers and parents who may wish to keep informed of the literature I will be using to develop my curriculum. I often include these materials for students to read or listen to in class. Older students are also given reading homework from this private collection.

      Through journaling and observation I have learned to organize my thoughts, maintain education materials in such a way as to make them practically applicable in a classroom, and I have also learned that I can benefit from the professional experience of my fellow teachers greatly. I have developed six journals loaded with all kinds of reflections, brief essays, photographs, articles and listings of art resources for my future needs as an art instructor. Administrators may review pages and listings from the following journals during a live interview.

      The journal titled "Art At The Museum," was developed during my class by the very same name. This unique experience took place at the St. Louis Art Museum during the spring semester of 2010. The chief aim of the course work which is included in it's entirety inside of the journal, was to inform pre-service art educators how to collect, reference and use museum studies, collections and art history in the classroom. The two primary areas of focus were on ancient cultures and modern art. However, there were also some unusual studies on artifact preservation and curriculum development as well.

      I chose to create the journal titled "Literature & Art Integrated for Elementary School Children," during my studies in elementary literature in the spring semester of 2010 in addition to many enjoyable projects assigned during this informative class. It contains an abundance of ideas about how an art teacher can integrate reading, writing and literacy in the art classroom.

      The journal titled "Art Internship Seminar at UMSL," is the accumulation of a wide variety of materials I needed to reflect upon in order to complete a hands-on teaching experience at Union Elementary School, Bellville, Ill.. During the fall semester of 2010, I partnered with a fellow student to write and teach a series of six lesson plans based upon the CUSP exhibits at the Schmidt Art Center, Belleville, Illinois. The CUSP exhibits are about teaching and informing through a wide variety of objects and human experiences common to the community of individuals living in Bellville.  Through our lessons, students learned to make art that focused on their own personal identity and environment. 

      In addition to my detailed journaling, I have also observed and written descriptive essays about many qualified professionals from my surrounding school districts: Lindbergh, St. Charles, St. Louis City , and Jennings. These teachers successfully implement many educational strategies, build on their student's prior knowledge, and engage students in various methods of inquiry/research in their classrooms daily. I have incorporated much of their positive advice and methods during my State Internship experience at a Bellville elementary school, which has been documented in detail in the journal, "Ubjects."

      I also share many reproductions of art objects in my extended family's collections with my school children while teaching course studies in history, art and culture. Samples such as those pictured in my private portfolio and the careful selection of films, original artworks and literature help me to create authentic experiences for students under my instruction.

article copyrighted 2011 by Grimm 

appropriate challenges motivate art students

      Skill and age appropriate challenges motivate art students. Teachers must know what most students in certain age groups are capable of learning before they introduce materials to them. Evaluate your students' skills before assigning a project. Make sure students can do some of the assignment on their own. Choose to give new challenges along with familiar ones at the same time. Expanding old skills while introducing new ones will nurture confidence in young artists. Young people can be made to feel as though they are being disrespected when educators "baby" them too much. Never dumb down the materials. If students have difficulty with the assignment, simply break it down into more manageable pieces for them to study. I keep the following points in mind whenever I’m confronting an art student with new ideas or methods:

• Never set goals so high that students become extremely frustrated before realistically completing a task. You want to challenge them but not with too many difficult tasks at once.
• I let my students assess verbally their concerns about the difficulty of a task.
• I revise required performances according to student feedback.
• Break up procedures into smaller/easier tasks so that students can manage the information and/or requirements.

      I’ve included a graphic below that illustrates Bloom’s taxonomy. This small chart includes all three aspects of growth that art students must experience in order to grow properly: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. Students will observe while studying the chart that all three aspects including the head, the heart, and the hands develop according to student’s experiences and also according to their ages. (age is implied) Reminding students of these aspects may feel a bit tedious but such comprehension of the facts is necessary in order that they may give themselves a fair chance to learn in the arts. Part of this understanding also is achieved through skills that build self-esteem and patience. I often cut out a few steps, or add additional guidance to art projects in order that students may feel as though their artwork is more attractively accomplished. In these instances a little help can go a long way in convincing those who participate actively in the arts that they are able to accomplish larger than life goals.

(Grimm's graph based upon Bloom's Taxonomy)

article and graph copyrighted by Grimm 2011

Safe and accepted in the classroom

(Grimm’s chart about Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs)

      Students are motivated when they feel safe and accepted. No student ever enjoys feeling or actually being ostracized by peers and or teachers. I strive for this emotional safety factor in my art classroom. Students need to know that even if their opinions or ideas don't seem to be similar to their peers, they will be kindly welcomed and listened to during lessons in my classroom.

      I’ve included above an illustration of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs. His original idea is based upon this concept that in order for people to mature properly they must first have a specific group of needs met. In order of importance Maslow lists: physiological needs, safety needs, then love and belongingness and last self-esteem. The last and ultimate goal, “self actualization,” is the utmost level of human attainment. According to Maslow, many healthy people never reach this end of the pyramid but live happily near the top anyway. Although I see this last part of his theory as an egocentric analysis, because one must assume that men are intelligent enough to estimate human potential to begin with and this is not usually correct. Humans are capable of great potential but not every person is capable of recognizing this potential when they see it. I generally believe, however, that I have witnessed Maslow’s “hierarchy of needs” at work in my classroom.

      Helping students to feel safe and accepted within the classroom is generally dependant on a teacher’s limited ability to fulfill their actual physical comfort at least for a limited amount of time. Sick and hungry students cannot perform tasks properly to begin with. School districts are fully aware of this problem; this is why there are government programs established to feed students who cannot afford even cafeteria meals. Things like heat and air conditioning must also be provided for by those in charge of school property for the basic comforts of student populations. And last but not least, school nurses are hired for the very important and obvious reasons surrounding the health and care of students in schools. So teachers are given all kinds of resources to help supply the physiological needs of their students and I have only covered the most basic in this paragraph. There are many other services I am not listing at this time.

      Abuse and financial insecurity are addressed by the classroom teacher through those who provide for her job stability, her access to free resources, and also through the taxes and donations given to supply the funding of her choices made on the behalf of students under her care. The state also has an entire network of agencies in place to protect those under aged students who are being physically or emotionally abused as well.

      The third ‘need’ illustrated by Maslow on the pyramid above has to do with the fulfillment of loneliness and detachment. Teachers can do a lot to battle these kinds of problems faced by young people everyday in the classroom. An excellent teacher intervenes on the behalf of awkward or socially challenged students constantly. She does this not only by accepting the student herself through reaffirming words and actions but also by directly influencing and managing the behavior/attitude of a lonely student’s peer group.

      Self-esteem is at the top of Maslow’s pyramid. It is the second to the last step he believed to be necessary in order for a person to develop fully. Classroom art teachers can grow this human need properly by consistently promoting the following activities.

• Recognize the importance of “what” students think. Look them directly in the eye when speaking to them and wait patiently for students to express their opinions. Adults don’t like to be interrupted or ignored when they are trying to make an important point and neither do young people. Give the polite respect to your students that you expect them to give to you.
• Students who keep journals/sketchbooks about their observations and opinions shape their experiences in meaningful ways that help to build self-esteem. This is a reflective practice that most educators report to have a major impact on the intellectual growth of a student.
• Students should be encouraged to create art projects that positively reinforce their self-image and also recognize their identity through their inherited culture. The teacher must be careful about this, however, some cultures are highly destructive and some students suffer as a direct result of those cultures that are. Educators must stay realistically informed about the cultural practices of their student population and learn when and how it is safe to include these references in the classroom.
• Acting out real life scenarios and discussing preferable outcomes helps students to develop the emotional and physical means needed to interpret problems properly. This in turn, develops healthy self-esteem.
• Daily affirmations of compassion and understanding go a long way in the development of student self-esteem. Lend a listening ear to those issues that matter most to your students!
• Attribute responsibility when at all possible. Students know that responsibilities are given to those who are admired and trusted.
• Show a little kindness. Give when you don’t need to give but just to say that you genuinely ‘like’ being in the company of those you care for. This is very important to people.
• Recognize publically the accomplishments of your students. When honoring another be sure to reward the entire class. This will increase the student’s rapport within his peer group, thus establishing self-esteem where it can really count! Do this but only when it is sincere and only when it is obviously deserved.
• Honor your students privately as well. Students will consider this form of recognition realistic coming from a teacher and will take it under consideration over time. This develops self-esteem gradually if it is consistently practiced.

      I think that many art teachers do wonder whether or not they will ever personally witness the final step in Maslow’s theory. The self-actualization of an artist doesn’t seem to prove itself possible until an artist has lived and produced after an entire lifetime of struggles, experimentations, and risks. So, how can art educators possibly measure self-actualization during the youth of their students? It’s very nature is found in the consistent nature of doing something and the doing of something doesn’t reach full potential if one believes that life never ends and problems never cease. So, Maslow’s theory has a fatal flaw in that it presumes there to be an actual pyramid for most people and that it presumes man can overcome problems permanently or at least long enough to self-actualize.

      Maslow, like most respected theorists, does help us to think about “how” we teach. We can definitely improve the health and welfare of our students by adopting and adapting some of his principles. It is possible for students to be nurtured in a pro-active environment and to be given safer communities to live in. As an art teacher, I hope to successfully fulfill those necessary practices that build self-esteem/character appropriately in my own students.

article copyrighted 2011 by Grimm

Assigning meaning and purpose to art

      Art has had many unique, different, reasons for being created. Some of these functions of Art are summarized in the outline below. Evaluating the artistic purpose of an artwork based upon the original intent of the artist or their culture is vital to the greater understanding of all human cultures. What we perceive as non-motivated functions of art or as motivated functions of art may be defined by our own perceptions of "value" thus creating a false perspective about multiple societies, cultures, and belief systems on the whole. This is why it is important to understand the original intent of an artist in order to teach the meaning of his art appropriately. The original intent of an artist does not necessarily mean that one can’t enjoy or appreciate the art that one does not share a common interest in or belief with those who created it. Original intent is an argument made in defense of correct history. In fact one of the greatest purposes of art is to teach us about ourselves. We cannot learn about ourselves if we are dishonest or if we misinterpret the meaning behind the artworks’ creation in order to satisfy an argument that the original artist never intended to be addressed within venue of their own experiences.

      If students give meaning or assign purposes for creating art themselves, they will feel more inclined to persevere with their assignments. There should be a balance between my opinions and those ideas my students have about the creative process. Because my students have many experiences and beliefs of their own, it is by far more advantageous for me to design lessons that give them license for broad interpretations. I never hesitate to superimpose an academic perspective of issues when my students’ education is at stake, however, I do try to make room for their personal opinions as well.

      I hope that people who read here will discover that there are as many purposes to art as there are reasons for communication with others. I've listed below a few of the most common purposes found in both my own culture and the culture of many other peoples. Certainly any number of these purposes may be true of more than one single artwork. Before planning my own art curriculum, I reflect on the purpose of the lesson seriously. I make a list of “pros and cons” for the project and try to think about it objectively. This kind of study will helps me to improve the “way” I teach and the “whys” for my instructions.

1. Religious purposes of art – Art created in a religious context is used to inspire or interpret spiritual experiences, beliefs, covenants, religious institutions and ideas. Some cultures develop elaborate symbolism or process to mirror their philosophy or theology illustrated by an artwork. 
2. Commercial purposes of art – The commercial purposes of art are intended to influence people to spend money. Sometimes deception or the manipulation of a select group is predetermined by a business industry in order to solicit money from them. Not all commercial purposes are negative. Sometimes commercial industry meets the true, actualized needs of others. A good example of this would be to create art that markets important medicine.
3. Aesthetic purposes of art – Aestheticism is the pursuit of a positive idealistic concept in art. Aesthetic artworks vary widely from culture to culture.
4. Decorative purposes of art – Decorative purposes in art are often confused with aesthetic purposes but, they are not the same. For an artwork to be “decorative” it is generally thought appealing but it does not necessarily illustrate an idealistic point of view. Generally speaking, decorative works are produced through ritualized pattern making.
5. *Utilitarian purposes of art – A utilitarian artwork serves two or more purposes at the same time. The quilt, being produced by an artist, may demonstrate aesthetic qualities or decorative purposes but, it is also crafted for the purpose of keeping someone warm. In utilitarian artworks there is always a practical applied reason for that artwork to be made apart from it’s artistic purposes. An iron may be designed beautifully but it’s other aim is to smooth out wrinkles with heat. 
6. Meditation purposes of art – Art that is the result of meditation looks different depending upon the artist who creates it. In Christianity meditation may be contemplative or resemble great study. To create a meditative purpose in their artwork is to “infill their own spirit with multiple pieces of information.” Whereas, in religious meditative practices of Buddhists, to meditate is to “empty out” the thinking process. So these artistic purposes of meditation are accurately represented as containing less information. In both cases, however, the end result of the meditation is the artwork that is the result of the meditation.
7. Therapeutic purposes of art – Therapeutic purposes in art are intended to be used by those who participate in them as a form of catharsis. A purification or purgation of their emotions such as pity or fear. These purposes are generally conceived to be ridding the artist of “unwanted” ideas. It is a purging process for a Christian and should not be confused with Christian meditation.
8. Political purposes of art – A political artwork is made in reference to government or a political system. It could be negative or positive depending on the artist’s point of view.
9. Academic purposes of art – Academic artworks are produced by or for the purposes of an institution of higher learning. Many times, artists perceive Avant-garde artworks as having strong ties to academic purposes. However, academic purposes are always defined by a faculty and these may change given the members of the faculty at present.
10. Avant-garde purposes of art – An avant-garde work pushes the known boundaries of acceptable art. These boundaries could be about revolution, culture or politics. It just depends upon the predisposition of the artist himself.
11. Historical purposes of art – This purpose of historical art is to retell actualized events that have taken place in the form of a visual reference.
12. Intimate purposes of art – Intimate purposes in art works primarily reflect the individual needs of the person creating the artwork.
13. Folk art purposes of art – These are sometimes historical but often are stories relating an event or idea that are conceived from a less educated point of technical skill in an artist and also have a tendency to give a story teller’s point of view in depiction. Whereas historical works are believed to be less about the beliefs of those painting them than they are about the facts relating the event.
14. Illustrative purposes of art – These purposes are to demonstrate things, people and places as these appear to the human eye.
15. Entertainment purposes of art - The purpose of the art of entertainment is to occupy people(s) with art that diverts their attention from daily routine and labor. This is a very broad category for "purpose" because there are so many alternative views of entertainment. Some of these views are very destructive and some are harmless. "Entertainment'' can be loosely defined in American culture. It is usually dictated by those who are promoting their own agendas. 

*Utilitarian in the arts is derivative of the word util-i-ty from Middle English. It is not used in context with the word utilitarianism which is a theory.

article copyrighted 20011 by Grimm 

The Silent Brave by William Collins

How sleep the brave who sink to rest,

By all their country's wishes blest!

When spring, with dewy fingers cold,

Returns to deck their hallowed mold,

She there shall dress a sweeter sod

Than fancy's feet have ever trod.

By fairy hands their knell is rung,

By forms unseen their dirge is sung;

There honor comes, a pilgrim gray,

To bless the turf that wraps their clay;

And freedom shall a while repair,

To dwell a weeping hermit there!